ben m
Joined: 15 Sep 2002
Posts: 337
Location: UK |
| Week 2 - Computers 1 |
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Hi everyone,
here are the questions for this week.
I'd like in-depth but
concise
answers to these questions.
You need to get into the exam frame of mind of answering the question as well as you can without descending into waffle!
There are plenty of resources out there for this topic, but if you feel you need help then contact me via my email.
Finally, can you all remember to 'reply' to this thread with your answers!
Ok, good luck.
 Identify the purpose of a motherboard.
Explain the purposes of the following components/peripherals within a Computer, and how they would connect to a typical motherboard:
CPU
RAM
Hard Drive (Internal & External)
Video Card
Sound Card
CD/DVD-ROM Drive
Modem
UPS
Network Card
Please define the following terms and explain their abbreviations where relevant;
USB/USB 2.0
SCSI
Firewire/mLAN
ATA/SATA/IDE
What devices may be connected to these interfaces, and which have implications for the Audio Engineer?
Explain the term 'Operating System', and identify the 2 main OSs' in use (name the relevant platform for these OSs')
Expand the abbreviation 'GUI' and give a description of its concept and how it has evolved.
Briefly describe the following:
a)Application
b)Machine code
c)High level language
d)Java
Outline the main differences between Apple Macintosh computers and IBM compatible computers. |
Sun Mar 14, 2004 7:21 pm |
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iNSTiNCT2765
Joined: 05 Nov 2003
Posts: 60
Location: Denmark |
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Music Technology – Week 2
Computers 1
The motherboard in a computer is the main circuit board, and it’s also the largest. It holds the computers processor, memory and expansion slots. It handles the interaction between all the different components, which are directly or indirectly connected to the motherboard.
CPU (central processing unit): This is the brain of the computer. It handles all the processing. The amount of calculations it can do simultaneously depends on its speed. The greater it’s speed, the more it can process hence you can perform more tasks at once (programs load quicker, smoother graphics in games). It sits directly on the motherboard.
RAM (random access memory): When a program is opened, it is loaded into the RAM from the hard disk because its faster to read data from the RAM than from the hard disk. So expanding the RAM will speed up the computer because more data can be loaded into it. RAM is connected to an expansion slot on the motherboard in the form of a memory chip.
Hard Drive (internal & external): This is where all the data in the computer is stored. All your audio files, software, etc. An internal hard drive sits inside the computer and connects to the motherboard through a cable. External hard drives are connected to the motherboard through either a USB, SCSI or Firewire port.
Video Card: A monitor is connected to this card so the tasks the computer is performing can be displayed visually. They connect to the motherboard through either a PCI or an AGP slot.
Sound Card: If a computer has audio, you have to have a soundcard in order to hear it. Speakers are connected to these cards so the sound can be output. An internal soundcard connects to the motherboard through a PCI slot. Newer or more professional audio soundcards can come in an external form that can connect to the computer through a Firewire port.
CD/DVD-ROM Drive: This drive is used to play audio CD’s or DVD or install programs onto the computer, which come on CD-ROMs. Connects to the IDE socket on the motherboard through an IDE cable.
Modem (modulator/demodulator): This is used to connect to other computers or the Internet through the phone line. This is usually a very slow connection. Newer version such as cable modems and DSL modems have virtually replaced the old dial-up versions. An internal modem connects to the motherboard through a PCI slot.
UPS (uninterruptible power supply): A device that sits between the wall socket and the computer and saves your computer data to be lost in the event of a power outage. When it senses a power shortage, it sets in and notifies you so you have time to save your data. Can connect to the computer through the USB port.
Network Card: This is how you connect to a Local Area Network, which in turn connects to the Internet. It gives you a high-speed connection for transferring data. The card connects to a PCI slot on the motherboard.
USB/USB 2.0 (universal serial bus): This is a computer port designed by Intel to let you connect external peripherals to the computer. USB 2.0 was released in April 2000 and is the high-speed version of USB with a maximum bandwidth of 480 Mb/s.
SCSI (small computer system interface): This is an interface that can be used to connect devices like hard drives to the computer. Up to seven devices can be connected to one SCSI port in a chain without performance loss. There are several versions of this interface.
Firewire/mLAN: Firewire is yet another interface used to connect peripherals to the computer at extremely high bandwidths; this one’s created by Apple computer. A standard port transfers data at 400Mb/s while the new Firewire 800 interfaces lets you double that. mLAN is developed by Yamaha and is based on the Firewire technology or IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 1394 technology. It allows high quality digital audio and midi data to be transmitted and received over a single cable at a speed of 200 Mb/s.
ATA/SATA/IDE: IDE stands for Integrated Device Electronics and is an interface for hard drives. ATA stands for Advanced Technology Attachment and is another name for the IDE interface. SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) is a new version of the IDE/ATA interface and the main difference is that it uses a serial connection instead of parallel. The cables are more flexible and thinner in size and can be longer than the parallel cables used in the older IDE interface.
The SCSI and ATA/IDE and SATA interfaces can be used to connect hard drives to the computer. The fastest out of the three is the SCSI but a SCSI hard drive is also more expensive. It is the best choice for hard drive audio recording. Peripherals ranging from keyboards, CD burners, webcams, and storage facilities can be connected to a USB port. Even my MPC1000 connects to the USB port of my computer. The Firewire drive is suitable for high-speed/multichannel audio capturing using external Firewire audio interfaces like the Digidesign Digi002/Rack. mLAN is exclusively for use with audio and music. My Triton Rack sound module has an expansion slot in the back where a separately sold mLAN card can be connected.
The Operating System (OS) is the software that communicates with all the hardware. It provides the user access to all the programs installed, disk drives, hard drives, CD-ROM drives, etc. The two main operating systems in use today are Windows and Macintosh. These operate on IBM Compatible computers and Apple computers respectively.
GUI (graphical user interface): This is the graphical interface of the operating system. This is where you can point and click, drag and drop, open and close instead of having to type in text commands like in DOS. It makes computing much easier and quicker. The GUI was developed by Xerox but introduced to the public by Apple with the Macintosh interface in 1984. Since then has the GUI gone through many updates and has gotten much more advanced with richer colours and graphics.
Application: A software program
Machine code: The elemental language of computers. When someone has programmed using a programming language, the computer can translate it into machine code so it can use it directly.
High level language: Programming language that uses English key words such as “FOR” and “GOTO”
Java: This is a programming language developed by Sun Microsystems. It can be used to program small programs that can be embedded in websites.
One of the most profound differences between the Apple Macintosh and the IBM compatible computers is that the Apple is more stable due to its 128-bit bus architecture compared to the IBM compatible computers 32 and 64bit architecture. This is why Apple computers are the preferred choice for professional audio engineers. Apples also contain no third-party components unlike IBM compatible’s reinforcing their stability. This is also why the Apple Macintosh computers are more synonymous with professionalism rather than ‘family PC’s’.
- Aman |
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Fri Mar 19, 2004 3:28 am |
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hoggs33
Joined: 09 Feb 2004
Posts: 55
Location: Nottingham, England |
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Here are my answers (not an anorak in sight honest!!!!):-
Identify the purpose of a motherboard.
The motherboard is the main circuit inside a PC. It holds the processor, memory and expansion slots and connects basically to every part of the PC whether directly or indirectly. It is the ‘heart’ of the machine as every component connects to and communicates through the motherboard, without one the PC will not work.
Explain the purposes of the following components/peripherals within a Computer, and how they would connect to a typical motherboard:
CPU – the central processing unit is the central component of the PC. It is a vital component that can determine which operating system can be used, which software will run on the PC, how much energy the PC uses and how stable the system will be and the speed at which the PC will run and open programs. The processor is a flat square sliver of silicon with circuits etched on its surface. This chip is linked to connector pins and the whole thing encased in some form of packaging, either ceramic or plastic, with pins running along the flat underside or along one edge. It is connected to the motherboard via a form of CPU interface, being either a slot or a socket.
RAM – This is Random Access Memory. RAM is the PC’s primary storage area, used to write, store and retrieve information and program instructions which are then passed to the CPU for processing. The type and amount of Ram used affects the performance of the PC as the information stored here has to be refreshed many times per second by the processor. RAM ‘modules’ connect to the motherboard by connections which can be DIMM, SIMM or RIMM.
Hard Drive (Internal & External) – the main internal hard drive basically stores the contents of the computers memory such as its operating system files, installed software etc, even when the PC is switched off. It serves as a non volatile, bulk storage medium, being the storage area for the users documents, files and applications. The main internal drive also contains all the boot up info for the PC. Internal hard drives connect to the motherboard via a wide thin cable with pin sockets on the end known as a IDE cable. A power supply is also plugged into the drive. More than one internal drive can be installed if the motherboard allows. The main drive from which the PC boots would then be known as the primary or master drive with other drives known as secondary or slave drive drives. External hard drives basically act as a storage medium again for files, folders and software programs. They are usually connected via USB or Firewire connections.
Video Card – also known as graphics cards are usually plugged into the motherboard in the form of a PCI card, but sometimes they can be on the motherboard itself. The video card basically governs the type and quality of the display in terms of its resolution, clarity and colour depth etc.
Sound Card – similar to the video card in terms of connections to the motherboard, the sound card governs the quality of the sound produced by a PC – no sound card – no sound!. It can be quite common now to find external audio interfaces that connect by USB or firewire. Sound cards are used for both recording and playback on a Pc and also MIDI functions.
CD/DVD-ROM Drive – These drives are connected in similar way as the hard drive by IDE cables with a power supply. The drive is then used as a means of loading programs and information onto the PC and also as a removable storage medium if the drive has writing capabilities.
Modem – the modem can be internal or external and usually connects either via a serial port (COM 1 or COM2) or USB if external or via an expansion slot on the motherboard if internal. It allows a PC to connect to other computers and to send and receive files of data over the telephone. A modem is essential for an internet connection and can also be used as a fax machine and telephone if the correct hardware and software is available.
UPS - UPS stands for Uninterruptible Power Supply and gives uninterruptible power to critical loads and beside it provides correct voltage, frequency and wave type. It is a device that sits between a power supply and the PC
Network Card - internal network cards connect to the motherboard via a PCI expansion slot. External wireless networking is also available usually with a USB connection. The network card allows the PC to be connected to another PC or groups of PC’s such as in an office environment so that all the PC’s in a network can communicate with each other and share files, internet connections etc.
Please define the following terms and explain their abbreviations where relevant;
USB/USB 2.0 – USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. USB 2.0 is the most recent type of connection being much faster than USB – USB1.1 transfers at around 12MBits/s whereas USB2.0 transfers at speeds of up to 480 MBit/s. USB slots are used for connecting peripherals to PC’s
SCSI – Stands for Small Computer System Interface an American National Standards Institute interface between the computer and peripheral controller.
Firewire/mLAN – Firewire is a connection very similar in purpose to USB. mLAN technology is based on the Apple led FireWire standard and enables the high speed transmission of digital audio and music. mLAN is a data transfer protocol which also allows MIDI and video data to be sent down one Firewire connector.
ATA/SATA/IDE - ATA is the AT Attachment which is the specification, formulated in the 1980’s by a consortium of hardware and software manufacturers, that defines the IDE drive interface. IDE drives are sometime referred to as ATA drives or AT bus drives. SATA stands for Serial Advanced Technology Attachment which is a new standard for connecting hard drives into computer systems. IDE stands for Integrated Device Electronics or Intelligent Drive Electronics. It is a drive interface specification for small to medium-size hard disks with capacities up to 540Mb
What devices may be connected to these interfaces, and which have implications for the Audio Engineer?
There are a huge range of devices that can be connected to these interfaces such as external hard drive, wireless networking, audio interfaces, digital music players such as iPod, external sound cards, DVD and CD writers etc. There are many that have implications for the Audio Engineer. In particular the following could be connected via USB, Firewire or internal connections:-
• External sound card or audio interface.
• Control surface for software packages.
• Midi keyboard controller and other Midi products.
• 5.1 surround speaker set up
• External hard drive for storage of audio data.
• CD/DVD writer for producing CD’s and DVD’s
Explain the term 'Operating System', and identify the 2 main OSs' in use (name the relevant platform for these OSs')
An operating system or OS is a software program that enables the computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software. Without an operating system the computer would be useless. The two main current operating systems are Microsoft (Windows XP) for the PC and Mac OSX for Apple Macintosch computers.
Expand the abbreviation 'GUI' and give a description of its concept and how it has evolved.
GUI stands for Graphical User Interface. A GUI Operating system contains graphics and icons and is commonly navigated using a computer mouse such as a normal home based PC. THE GUI was first developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Douglas Englebart, and a group of other researchers. It uses windows, icons and menus to carry out commands such as opening, deleting or moving files, usually by a mouse or keyboard shortcuts. Early computers were purely text and keyboard orientated and the development of the GUI has enabled computers to become much more user friendly. Apple used it first in their Macintosh computers and later Microsoft used many of the same ideas in the first version of Windows.
Today's major operating systems provide a graphical user interface. Applications typically use the elements of the GUI that come with the operating system and add their own graphical user interface elements and ideas. A GUI sometimes uses one or more metaphors for objects familiar in real life, such as the desktop, the view through a window, or the physical layout in a building. Elements of a GUI include such things as: windows, pull-down menus, buttons, scroll bars, iconic images, wizards, the mouse, and no doubt many things that haven't been invented yet. With the increasing use of multimedia as part of the GUI, sound, voice, motion video, and virtual reality interfaces seem likely to become part of the GUI for many applications. A system's graphical user interface along with its input devices is sometimes referred to as its "look-and-feel
Briefly describe the following:
a)Application - a computer program designed for a specific task or use.
b)Machine code - A control program’s sequence of binary values telling the processor’s core what to do and when. Program memory holds this sequence - the required location is pointed to by the core’s Program Counter (PC). Different codes represent different instructions that the decoder interprets
c)High level language - A programming language which provides some level of abstraction above assembly language. These normally use statements consisting of English-like keywords such as "FOR", "PRINT" or "GOTO", where each statement corresponds to several machine language instructions. It is much easier to program in a high-level language than in assembly language though the efficiency of execution depends on how good the compiler or interpreter is at optimising the program
d)Java – This is Sun Microsystem’s object orientated programming language, designed for networked systems such as the Web. It allows computers to rum programs called applets.
Outline the main differences between Apple Macintosh computers and IBM compatible computers.
Ahhh, it’s like VHS v’s Betamax in the 80’s (showing my age now!!!).
1. The assembler language instruction set (i.e programming code) is different.
2. The main CPU chips are different
3. The basic computer language has different commands.
4. Apple were the first to use a GUI.
5. Apples operating system is tightly integrated with the BIOS with a long standing effort to standardize software and peripheral device interfaces used for Mac computers. As a result Macs use less software files and hard disk space to run programs.
6. Basic key combinations, window/application switching, location of special keys are different.
7. The GUI is different.
8. The operating systems are different.
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Fri Mar 19, 2004 3:28 am |
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griff505
Joined: 23 Feb 2004
Posts: 68
Location: Bristol |
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- Identify the purpose of a motherboard.
The motherboard is the physical arrangement of circuitry and components found in a computer. Components included on the motherboard are the processor, memory, input / output system (BIOS) and expansion slots. The motherboards purpose is to connect all these devices together; it is the backbone of the computer.
- Explain the purposes of the following components/peripherals within a Computer, and how they would connect to a typical motherboard:
CPU – Central Processing Unit, sometimes referred to as the processor. It is the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. On personal computers the CPU is usually house in a single chip called a microprocessor located on the motherboard. Within the processor the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic (adding, subtracting, comparing two numbers, and fetching numbers from one area to another) and logical operations and the control unit extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them calling on the ALU when necessary.
RAM - Random Access Memory, a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly. Any byte of memory can be accessed without touching preceding bytes. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is the most common type and is refreshed thousands of times a second, whereas Static Ram (SRAM) does not need to be refreshed making it faster, but more expensive. Both types loose their contents when turned off. Its function is to hold information on the operating system, application programmes, and data in current use, so that the processor can access it quickly. If the amount of RAM fills up, the data needs to be written to the hard drive which slows the computer down significantly. Most modern computers come with 512MB of RAM, although this can be easily and cheaply expanded to over 1GB, by slotting another 512 MB card into the motherboard.
Hard Drive (Internal & External) – A magnetic disk on which the computer stores a large amount of quick access data – 100GB+. It consists of a set of stacked disks which have data electromagnetically written on them in concentric circles. A head, like a record player arm, writes and reads the information, and one can be found on both sides of each disk. The speed of a hard drive is dependent upon the speed which the disk rotates which can vary from 4500 to 7200 rpm. An internal hard drive will be found in a bay under the CD and DVD drives in the computer, it is connected to the Motherboard via a serial lead. An external hard drive is useful to transport data between computers and to back up important data, and so is relevant to audio applications. They are connected to the computer using either a Firewire or USB 2.0 lead which allows for the maximum bandwidth for data to be passed at high speeds.
Video Card – A video card slots into a PCI on the computer motherboard to provide digital-to-analog conversion, video RAM, and a video controller so that data can be sent to a computer's display (although the display performance is also down to the display monitor). Today all video cards conform to a common standard – Video Graphics Array (VGA). VGA describes how data (red, green, blue data streams) is passed between the computer and the display. Most videos cards have some memory so that the computers RAM is not used for storing displays and most adapters have their own graphics coprocessor for performing graphics calculations
Sound Card – A sound card allows the computer to input and output sound, it can be attached to the ISA or PCI slot on a motherboard, or externally via USB, UBS 2.0 or Firewire. The soundcard has four main functions: a synthesizer (generating sounds); a MIDI interface; analog-to-digital conversion; and digital-to-analog conversion. Soundcards specifically for audio applications vary depending on price and what functions they need to carry out. The number of inputs and outputs is one of the main varying factors and is dependant upon what the card it intended for. A major issue with sound cards for audio is latency which is a lagging of a sound playing and the sound being heard. The latency amount has decreased as technology has advanced, and now multiple tracks of 24 bit audio can be processes with only a couple of milliseconds of latency. Most soundcards also have a MIDI in and out allowing the computer to ‘speak’ to the devices connected to the MIDI outputs.
CD/DVD-ROM Drive – CD-ROM = Compact Disc Read-Only Memory – A CD-ROM is an adaptation of the CD designed to hold data and text as well as audio of up to 1 GB. A standard CD is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick and is composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate, one or more thin reflective metal layers, and a lacquer coating. Information is read from a CD-ROM by a CD-ROM Drive which can be either internal, fitted in a bay, or external, connected to the SCSI interface or parallel port. They are generally specified as being a single speed - the faster the speed, the faster information is accessed. Most modern CD-ROM drives are capable of recording or ‘burning’ information to a blank CD-ROM.
- DVD-ROM = Digital Video Disc – A DVD is an optical disk similar to a CD-ROM however it holds a minimum of 4.7 GB up to 17 GB and is therefore suitable for holding a film, it is also capable to storing 24bit audio. DVD drives are backward-compatible with CD-ROMs, meaning they can play old CD-ROMs, CD-I disks, and video CDs. They are connected to the computer in the same way as a CD-ROM.
Modem – Modulator-Demodulator – A modem is usually used to allow a computer to transmit data over telephone or cable lines by modulating the outgoing digital signals from a computer or other digital device to analog signals for a conventional copper twisted pair telephone line and demodulates the incoming analog signal and converts it to a digital signal for the computer.
Most new PC’s come with a 56 Kbps modem fitted in a PCI slot. However to use a broadband service an external modem is usually used connected to the computer’s UBS or Ethernet port.
UPS - Uninterruptible Power Supply - An uninterruptible power supply allows a computer to keep running for a short time when the primary power source is lost. It contains a battery that kicks in if power to the device is lost. It also provides protection from power surges. Its purpose it to allow the user to save data and shut down the computer in the correct way rather than the computer just going dead as soon as the power faults and any data stored only in RAM being lost.
Network Card – A Network Card or Network Interface Card is a circuit card or expansion board fitted to a computer to allow it to be connected to a network. Most PC’s and workstation on a LAN contain a network interface card.
- Please define the following terms and explain their abbreviations where relevant;
USB/USB 2.0 – Universal Serial Bus – An external bus standard that can support transfer rate of up to 12 Mbps and up to 127 peripheral devices from a single port. USB supports plug-and-play installation and devices such as audio players, joysticks, keyboards, sound cards, telephones, scanners, and printers.
- USB 2.0 – USB 2.0 has replaced USB and supports data rates of up to 480 Mbps. USB 2.0 is fully compatible with USB 1.1.
SCSI - Small Computer System Interface - A parallel interface for attaching peripheral devices to computers. It allows a faster transfer rate (up to 80 Mbps) than standard serial and parallel ports. Many devices can be attached to a single SCSI port making it an I/O bus rather than simply an interface.
Firewire/mLAN – Firewire - FireWire is Apple Computer's version of a standard, IEEE 1394, High Performance Serial Bus, for connecting devices to your personal computer. FireWire provides a single plug-and-socket connection allowing 63 devices to be attached with data transfer speeds up to 400 Mbps.
- mLAN - mLAN is the integration of audio and midi over a single, FireWire cable.
ATA/SATA/IDE – ATA = Advanced Technology Attachment – the official name for IDE.
- SATA = Serial Advanced Technology Attachment - A serial link which creates a point-to-point connection between devices. Transfer rates for Serial ATA begin at 150MBps.
- IDE = Integrated Development Environment - a standard electronic interface between a computer motherboard's data paths and the computer's disk storage devices, it is often built into the motherboard.
- What devices may be connected to these interfaces, and which have implications for the Audio Engineer?
These devices can be used to connect almost any peripheral to the computer, ranging from the mouse, keyboard, printer and scanner, to external hard drives, sound cards and external CD – DVD-ROM drives. They all have implications for the Audio Engineer as they can all be used to connect the following, with the most effective being those that have the highest bandwidth to allow the transferring of large amounts of data at high speeds:
- External sound cards, midi-interfaces (keyboard / midi workstation), or digital mixer.
- Control module for audio software (e.g Steinberg Houston).
- External hard drive, probably connected by a Firewire lead.
- Explain the term 'Operating System', and identify the 2 main OSs' in use (name the relevant platform for these OSs').
After initially being loaded by a boot programme the OS manages all other programmes in a computer. Applications use the OS by requesting services through a defined application program interface (API). Users can interact with the OS through a graphical user interface (GUI). The OS determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application. It manages the sharing of internal memory among applications. It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices. The main platform on new PC’s is Windows XP (an alternative being Linux) and the most recent platform on the Apple Mac is OSX.
- Expand the abbreviation 'GUI' and give a description of its concept and how it has evolved.
Graphical User Interface. It is a graphical interface on the computer as opposed to text and keyboard orientated interfaces (e.g. the DOS computer operating system). Today’s OS’s all use GUI’s and the applications they run use the OS’s GUI and their own particular GUI. Examples of GUI’s include windows, pull-down menus, buttons, scroll bars, iconic images, wizards, and mouse pointers.
The Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Centre designed the first GUI in the 1970s and the idea was developed in the 1980s although use of GUI’s was not widespread until the emergence of Apple Computers.
- Briefly describe the following:
a)Application – Also known as end-user programmes, for example database programs, word processors, and spreadsheets. Applications sit on top of systems software (low-level programs that interact with the computer at a very basic level e.g. the OS) because they are unable to run without the operating system and system utilities.
b)Machine code – This is the elemental language of computers, using a string of 0’s and 1’s. It is the output of any programming language analysis and processing. Machine code is stored as an executable file until someone tells the computer's operating system to run it. The 0’s and 1’s and read and handled by the computers processor.
c)High level language - A programming language that can make programmes independent of a particular type of computer and first developed in the 1950’s e.g. C and FORTRAN. They are referred to as ‘high-level’ as they are closer to human language than programming languages and are therefore easier to read, write and maintain. However they do need to be translated into machine language by an interpreter.
d)Java - A high-level programming language developed by Sun-Microsystems for handheld devices and set-top boxes and later modified to take advantage of the World Wide Web. It is a simplified language to avoid programming errors and is easier to learn
- Outline the main differences between Apple Macintosh computers and IBM compatible computers.
- They run different operating systems therefore the applications used on it must be specified to that operating system. (IBM – Windows / Apple Macintosh – OSX)
- The Mac only has one mouse button which corresponds to the left mouse button on a Windows PC. To summon pop-up contextual menus you Control-click something on the Macintosh
- IBM computers and backwards compatible meaning that most recent OS will run programmes originally made for previous OS’s. The same cannot be said for the Mac as many OSX audio users are discovering.
- On the Mac a single menu bar appears at the top of the screen at all times. The commands in it change as you switch applications. There is no separate menu bar inside every window, as in Windows.
- Apple are a monopoly, anyone can make an IBM compatible PC. |
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Fri Mar 19, 2004 4:26 pm |
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krasimir
Joined: 17 Feb 2004
Posts: 2
Location: Bulgaria |
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The
motherboard
is the backbone of the computer and it houses the rest of its components. It can be thought of as the connection point for everything else you'll find inside of a computer system.Its purpose is to enable integration and control over all the devices necessary to run a computer.
The
CPU
(Central Processing Unit) is the centralized unit in the computer that does most the calculations.It is the brain of the computer and its most important element.The CPU is a microprocessor chip that sits on a special slot on a motherboard , usually accompanied by a heatsink.
The main brands of processors on the market today are Intel , AMD - for the PC platform and Power PC - for Macintosh.It is important to note that while comparable in performance, these processors require different hardware to run. They are distinguished by clock speed ( the amount of individual instructions that can be carried out per second) and bits. Current clock speeds reach 3.0 GHz (1,0 -2,8 GHz being common). 32 bit processors are standard today with 64 bit processors emerging.
RAM
(Random Access Memory) is a type of memory where any byte can be accessed randomly - that is without touching its adjacent bytes.Ram is the short term memory of the computer. It is the place where all the data queued for processing is stored and sorted.
Different types of RAM that are common today are SDRAM, DDRAM , and RAMBUS(almost obsolete) - distinguished by the number of their pins (168 , 172 , etc) and speed . RAM comes in sticks with various memory sizes(256 , 512 MB, etc) that are inserted into slots on the motherboard.
The amount of RAM is extremely important in audio applications. If the amount of RAM is not enough there will be performance and latency problems.
The
hard drive
is basically a storage device , it's the computer's long term memory.
While RAM is defined as 'volatile' - if the electrical charge is lost , so is the data , hard drives can retain data with no electricity present.Hard drives are connected to the motherboard via data transfer interface - usually IDE or SCSI. Programs and OSs are loaded from the hard disk to the RAM .
Characteristics of hard disks are its size in megabytes( common disks in use today are in the range of 10 to 200 GB) , seek times in nanoseconds(currently around 7-12 ns) , number of rounds per minute (like 7200 or 10,000rpm) and the speed of the interface that it uses to connect in megabytes per second(like 33,66,100,133 MB/s)
Video cards
are printed circuit boards that give the computer graphics display capabilities.They are the first link in the chain of human - computer interaction. They provide visual feedback of the computer user's actions. They are usually inserted in standard slots on the motherboard - PCI or -more often-in special graphics card slot called AGP (Advanced Graphics Port)
Sound cards
are printed circuit boards that give the computer the ability to input, output and manipulate sounds.The core of a soundcard are its analog - digital and digital-analog convertors (AD/DA). They allow an input signal to be processed and an already processed signal to be output, respectively.Soundcards are usually inserted in ISA(almost absolete) or PCI slots, and some use data transfer interfaces like USB or Firewire.
The
CD/DVD ROM drive
(Compact Disc/Digital Versatile Disc) is a device for reading data from optical media via laser beam - CD-ROMs or DVD-ROMs.
CD-ROMs are a type of optical data storage devices capable of storing up to 1 GB of data , although the typical range is around 600-800 MBs. They share the same technology as the audio CDs. It is important to point out that once CDs are stamped or closed, it is impossible to write more data on them.
DVD-ROMs are the next generation of optical disks.Using a narrower laser beam , DVD ROMs utilize narrower data track , thus increasing the data storage capacity - supporting disks from 4.7 to 17 GBs
This allows for greater sampling rate and bit resolution and less compression in case of audio applications.
CD- and DVD-ROMS usually share with hard drives the same data transfer interface for connecting to the motherboard - IDE or SCSI.
The
modem
(MOdulator - DEModulator) is a device that enables the computer to transmit data over distance, usually by cable or telephone line. Analog modems do that by converting the digital information into analog ,an - on the other end back to digital. Typical data transfer rate ranges from 56 Kbps in analog modems to 2 Mbps in ADSL(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) modems. Modems can be connected in a number of ways - for example using a PCI slot or data transfer interface like USB or serial port.
UPS
(Uninterruptible Power Supply) This is a power supply that includes a battery to keep the computer running in an event of a power outage.Typically the UPS would allow couple of minutes of normal operation after the outage to allow for the work in progress to be saved, preventing a data loss.
Network card
(or NIC -Network Interface Card) is a circuit board used to connect the computer to a network.Most NICs are designed to connect to a specific type of network or a protocol , although some can serve multiple networks. A common network protocol is Ethernet - capable of transmitting data at the rate of 10 or 100 Mbps. NICs are usually inserted into a PCI slot , although recently a lot of motherboards come with an on board NIC.
The
USB/USB 2.0
(Universal Serial Bus) is a data transfer interface for connecting peripheral devices.
It was designed to replace previous connector formats with a single universal high -bandwidth standard. USB supports what is known as 'hot plug' - devices can be plugged and unplugged without turning the computer off. The data transfer media is a cable (no more than 5 meters long without a hub) ending with a universal host an downstream connectors that go into the motherboard and the external device, respectively.The USB connection also provides power for the peripheral component. In theory USB 1.1 provides transfer rates of up to 12 Mbps , but in practice the actual bandwidth is 6 Mbps .
USB 2.0 is the next generation of USB.While being downwardly compatible with USB 1.x , it provides greater bandwidth - from 360 to 480 Mbps.
Firewire
(or IEEE 1394) is a data transfer interface for connecting peripheral devices. It was designed by Apple and is similar in philosophy to the USB interface.It also supports 'hot plugging' and provides power for the peripheral device.Maximum cable length is 4.5 meters. Transfer rates are 400 Mps with IE 1394a and 800 Mbps with the new IEEE 1394b(also capable of transferring data over longer distances.
mLAN
(Music Local Area Network) is a protocol developed by Yamaha based on the Firewire interface(the cables are the same). It is designed so all instruments, computers(both Mac and PCs) and peripherals could be connected within a common computer network thus simplifying the set up. It can transfer both MIDI and digital audio- up to 150 channels at 48 Khz sampling rate at 24 bit resolution.
A lot of professional sound cards , digital mixers, midi keyboards, control surfaces etc can be found today that using the USB/USB 2.0/Firewire . The simpleness of connection and compatibility have led a lot of equipment manifacturers in the pro audio world to go for these universal interfaces.
SATA/ATA/IDE
(Serial/Advanced Technology Attachment/Integrated Drive Electronics/) is a data transfer interface for connecting of up to 2 peripheral devices, usually storage drives- hard drives or CD/DVD ROMs. It supports transfer rates from 33MB/s in ATA 33 up to 133 MB/s in ATA 133.
The ATA/IDE interface uses special IDE slots on the motherboard to connect.
SATA is the next generation of ATA that uses serial interface(a single cable creates a point to point connection between devices) in contrast to the parallel used in ATA .It also replaces the inconvenient bulky cabling of ATA with much thinner cables. Bandwidth is 150 -300 MB /s and is expected to double every 3 years.
SCSI
(Small Computer Systems Interface) is a data transfer interface used for attaching peripherals to the computer. SCSI hard drives themselves have a much higher rotational speed that IDE drives , and that is why up until recently they have been preferred in professional audio applications.Many SCSI devices can be attached to a single port so it can be viewed more like i/o bus rather than simply an interface .
Data transfer rates in the current revision of SCSI are up to 80 MB/s .Some motherboards come with native SCSI support, although most require an add on card.
The devices that can connect to SCSI and ATA/IDE that might have implication on the work of an audio engineer include the storage devices - hard drivers - internal and external - and CD recorders.
Operating System
- this is the most important program run on a computer and it allows other programs to be run.It is an interface between the user , the applications and the computer's hardware . The main OSs in use today are Microsoft Windows on PC platforms and Mac OS on Macintosh platforms.
GUI
(Graphical User Interface) is the link between the user and the rest of the system in the operating system.GUI takes advantage of the computer graphic's display capabilities, provided by the video card, to make programs easier to use.Typical examples of GUI are the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS interfaces. It has changed the nature of human-computer interaction from textual input and output to a more intuitive approach with a pointer, and clickable menus, windows and icons. It has made computers much more user friendly and has brought the computer to the mass consumer.
Many DOS programs include some features of GUI , but are not graphics based. They are called character-based interfaces to distinguish them from genuine GUIs.
Application
is a program or a group of programs designed for end users. Applications cannot be run without a OS.
Machine code
is the lowest level of programming language and it is the only language that computers can understand.It consists entirely of binary digits -1s and 0s.All programs will eventually transform to machine code.
High level language
is a programming language that is more or less independant of the particular type of computer . A program written in high level language has to be translated into machine code by a compiler or a interpreter. Examples are C , Fortran , Pascal , Basic, etc.
Java
This is a relatively new high-level language that allows programs called applets to be distributed over the internet and run on a user's computer.Its goal is to provide simple programming language and programs that will run on most platforms.
Outline the main differences between Mac and PC platforms
:
Macintosh platforms are designed as all-in-one solutions where all the hardware is assembled by the manifacturer , as opposed to PCs' open architechture where the system builder has a choice of components. Macintosh uses Power PC CPUs while PCs' common CPUs are Intel and AMD. Macs are based on 128 bits internal architechture as oppossed to PCs with 32 and 64 bits.
Sources :
www.webopedia.com
www.globalmusicresource.com
www.anandtech.com
http://internal.vusd.solanocoe.k12.ca.us/Buck/bcstech.htm
Archived audiocourses
Sorry for any mistakes , after all English is not my native language 
Last edited by krasimir on Sat Mar 20, 2004 5:30 pm; edited 2 times in total |
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Sat Mar 20, 2004 12:57 am |
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SNG4HIM
Newbie
Joined: 11 Nov 2003
Posts: 5
Location: Maryland, USA |
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The motherboard is an electronic circuit board that provides the electrical communications between all components of a computer. Some components are directly connected to the board itself through slots and connectors while others are connected through a cable connection.
CPU: The Central Processing Unit is the main chip on the motherboard that does all the mathematical calculations. Computers work on 1’s and 0’s, thus all calculations are binary. Binary calculations provides instructions to computer components to do various tasks. Chip clock speed indicates the speed it takes to perform calculations.
RAM: The Random Access Memory is a temporary area of space where program files can load to operate and function. RAM is cleared out by either powering off a computer or rebooting. RAM is the “working area” for programs to run. Thus, the larger the working area, the easier it is for programs to run when they don’t run out of space and have to use ‘virtual memory’ which is simulated RAM using a hard drive.
Hard Drive (internal & external): Hard drive is the permanent storage magnetic media device to save all electronic files. Much like a cassette tape or video tape, you can only hold the amount of data based on the size of the hard drive space available.
Video Card: Video card translates binary instructions on what graphical representations (pixel colorizations) to send to any particular monitor attached to a computer. The video card can hold its own memory and constantly sends refresh signals to the monitor.
Sound Card: A sound card translates and enables a computer to playback sound and some cards, to record sound as well. Sound cards that record, will transform analog signals to 1’s and 0’s, or binary information that the computer can understand and process. Likewise, when the computer sends binary sound data to the card, it will translate it back to analog (or sometimes digital now) to the connected speakers.
CD/DVD-ROM Drive: These drives are read only drives that can read CD/DVD disks. They read the electronic data on a CD/DVD and sends the binary information to the CPU for processing and subsequent sound/video output. The drives, like most all drives come in varying speeds of read/write/access.
Modem: The modem can be an internal or external type device to a computer based on type such as telephone dial-up, DSL, cable, etc. The modem can be a bi-directional translator of either analog telephone signals or digital signals if cable/DSL before communicating data streams to the processor.
UPS: The Uninterruptible Power Supply is a backup battery for a computer that provides consistent power in the event of a main power source supply outage and some include voltage regulation. Some have additional serial connector cable that allows the UPS system to communicate to the computer in an automated fashion when power is interrupted, thus systematically and gently, saving any/all open files, closing programs and subsequently shutting down the computer in a normal fashion. The UPS will additionally protect the computer from power surges, spikes and brown-outs.
Network Card: The network card allows communications between 2 or more computers. It provides basic settings so computers can know how to send and receive instructions from one another, and to ensure that connected computers to the same network are authorized. The speed of the card determines the ability of data transfer speeds.
USB/USB 2.0: The Universal Serial Bus 2.0 is slightly faster than a standard IEEE 1394 firewire port. It provides easy, fast connections (480 mbps) of peripheral devices to a computer such as printers, cameras, etc. The ports themselves can handle many different types of devices with the ability to recognize which device is connected to it.
SCSI: The SCSI provides an interface for several components to be connected to the motherboard through a single ‘chain’ of communications to the motherboard.
Firewire/mLAN: Firewire is much like USB, allowing connectivity between peripheral devices and the motherboard. Standards are IEEE 1394 and tips can vary depending upon the attached device requirements.
ATA/SATA/IDE: (Advanced Technology Attachment/Serial Advanced Technology Attachment/Integrated Device Electronics): All of these are attachments standards between components and the motherboard. ATA and IDE are parallel and SATA is serial type connection standards. Many different types of devices can be connected through these types. Sound recording and playback systems must be matched with connection types for speed requirements and overall system performance to establish a stable and consistent error-free recording environment based on the connected equipment (analog/digital) and the computer’s components’ capabilities and speed.
Operating System: This is the foundation layer of computer software loaded on a hard drive that provides all instructions and communications instructions to a computer during bootup. Although there are a few individual software applications designed in an operating system, it provides the basic instructions for all other software and connected hardware as to how to communicate and by what standards/languages. The two main operating system for PC’s are Windows and MacIntosh, while there are other operating systems available for Unix systems and cross-platform capable operating systems. Linux is growing in popularity and investment for research/development and improvement.
GUI: The name itself, graphical user interface, pretty much says it all. It’s the design of graphics displayed on a monitor that provides the interface environment between human and machine. Based on the graphics, how they look and the instructions on the screen, the human user can determine what commands are available to send to the computer and how to send those commands, through any available input device that the system recognizes and understands. As the human social and educational levels/standards/acceptance evolves, the GUI is constantly redesigned through time with objectives in providing the friendliest, most easy to understand interface between the human aspect and machine.
Application: A computer program that is designed to accomplish one or more tasks. It is important that the application was designed to operate and function on the operating system loaded on the computer.
Machine code: This is basically 1’s and 0’s (binary).
High level language: This is code in more human understandable form using words and requires mid-process translation to lower levels of coding that the machine/operating system can understand. These languages have to be either compiled or translated on the fly.
Java: This is a Sun programming language developed with a primary objective of being able to operate on any operating system and function/look the same, thus achieving system independence.
IBM/Macintosh: The PC and Macintosh evolved along completely different lines of thought, development and time periods. The CPU and IC chips used were different from the beginning, IBM (and then Microsoft) and Apple (and then Macintosh) had completely different ideas about what their users wanted to use computers for, and the programmers, engineers and hardware developers went about it completely differently and established a competing environment. While Mac’s pretty much holds the market for known stability and processing power, IBM (and compatible) holds the market for overall saturation of software applications and personal/business use. |
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Sat Mar 20, 2004 1:44 pm |
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albertom
Joined: 21 Jan 2004
Posts: 22
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Identify the purpose of a motherboard.
The motherboard is the main circuit board of the computer, this links and controls every component the computer may need.
Explain the purposes of the following components/peripherals within a Computer, and how they would connect to a typical motherboard:
CPU = The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the centralized unit in the computer that does most the calculations sent by every component in the motherboard. The CPU is a microprocessor chip that sits on a special slot on a motherboard usually accompanied by a heatsink.
RAM = It’s the computer’s short-term memory. When a program is opened, it is loaded into the RAM from the hard disk because its faster to read data from the RAM than from the hard disk. So expanding the RAM will speed up the computer because more data can be loaded into it. RAM is connected to an expansion slot on the motherboard in the form of a memory chip.
Hard Drive (Internal & External)
Hard drive (internal & external): This is where all the data in the computer is stored. it's the computer's long term memory. All your audio files, porn, software, etc. An internal hard drive sits inside the computer and connects to the motherboard through a cable. External hard drives are connected to the motherboard through a USB, SCSI or Firewire port.
Video Card
It’s handles every operation of what you will be watching through a monitor. They connect to the motherboard through a PCI or an AGP slot.
Sound Card
Speakers are connected to these cards so the sound can be output. An internal soundcard connects to the motherboard through a PCI or ISA slots . There are advanced audio soundcards that come in an external form and connects to the computer through a Firewire port.
CD/DVD-ROM Drive
This drive is used to play audio CD’s extract files and install programs onto the computer, which come on CD-ROMs. Connects to the IDE socket on the motherboard through an IDE cable.
Modem (modulator/demodulator): This is used to connect to the Internet through the phone line. This is usually a very slow connection. Nowadays cable modems and DSL modems (which connects through a Network cable a have virtually replaced the old dial-up versions. An internal modem connects to the motherboard through a PCI slot and older modem versions connect through ISA slots.
UPS (uninterruptible power supply): A device that sits between the wall socket and the computer and saves your computer data to be lost in the event of a power outage. When a power shortage occurs, it notifies how many minutes you have until the UPS runs out so you have time to save your data.
Network Card: This is how you connect to a Local Area Network, which in turn connects to the Internet. It gives you a high-speed connection for transferring data. The card connects to a PCI or ISA slot on the motherboard.
USB: (universal serial bus): This is a computer port to let you connect external peripherals such as CD copiers, printers, DAT recorders to the computer. Every recording engineer recognizes its simple plug in to computer and start option.
Please define the following terms and explain their abbreviations where relevant;
USB/USB 2.0
USB provides transfer rates of up to 12 Mbps.
USB 2.0 the high-speed version of USB with a maximum bandwidth of 480 Mb/s.
SCSI (small computer system interface): This is an interface that can be used to connect devices like hard drives to the computer. SCSI hard drives themselves have a much higher rotational speed that IDE drives , and that is they have been preferred in professional audio applications. Data transfer rates in the current revision of SCSI are up to 80 MB/s.
Firewire/mLAN
(or IEEE 1394) is a data transfer interface for connecting peripheral devices. Similar to the usb interface firewire is used in audio applications such as connecting high quality mixers through the firewire cable to the computer. It also supports 'hot plugging' and provides power for the peripheral device. Maximum cable length is 4.5 meters. Transfer rates are 400 MBPS with IE 1394a and 800 Mbps with the new IEEE 1394b(also capable of transferring data over longer distances.
ATA/SATA/IDE
SATA/ATA/IDE (Serial/Advanced Technology Attachment/Integrated Drive Electronics/) is a data transfer interface for connecting of up to 2 peripheral devices, usually storage drives- hard drives or CD/DVD ROMs.
It is the best choice for hard drive audio recording.
The ATA/IDE interface uses special IDE slots on the motherboard to connect.
SATA is the next generation of ATA that uses serial interface(a single cable creates a point to point connection between devices) in contrast to the parallel used in ATA .It also replaces the inconvenient bulky cabling of ATA with much thinner cables. Bandwidth is 150 -300 MB /s and is expected to double every 3 years.
What devices may be connected to these interfaces, and which have implications for the Audio Engineer?
Here is a list of devices connected to those interfaces:
- Internal and external hard drives for all your saving, transporting and backing up aedio data needs.
- Cd burners or copiers
- External Sound cards which can be in usb form
- Digital mixers
Explain the term 'Operating System', and identify the 2 main OSs' in usa (name the relevant platform for these OSs')
Operating system
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The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, subh as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and direatories nn the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system.
Operating systems can be classified as follows:
multi-qser : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called applhcation programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as Linux.
Expand the abbreviation 'GUI' and give a description of its concept and how it has evolved.
GUI (graphical user interface) A GUI is a graphical (rather than purely textual) user interface to a computer. As you read this, you are looking at the GUI or graphical user interface of your particular Web browser. The term came into existence because the first interactive user interfaces to computers were not graphical; they were text-and-keyboard oriented and usually consisted of commands you had to remember and computer responses that were infamously brief. The command interface of the DOS operating system (which you can still get to from your Windows operating system) is an example of the typical user-computer interface before GUIs arrived. An intermediate step in user interfaces between the command line interface and the GUI was the non-graphical menu-based interface, which let you interact by using a mouse rather than by having to type in keyboard commands.
Today's major operating systems provide a graphical user interface. Applications typically use the elements of the GUI that come with the operating system and add their own graphical user interface elements and ideas. A GUI sometimes uses one or more metaphors for objects familiar in real life, such as the desktop, the view 4hrough a window, or the physical layout in a building. Elements of a GUI include such things as: windows, pull-down menus, buttons, scroll bars, iconic images, wizards, the mouse, and no doubt many things that haven't been invented yet. With the increasing use of multimedia as part of the GUI, sound, voice, motion video, and virtual reality interfaces seem likely to become part of the GUI for many applications. A system's graphical user interface along with its input devices is sometimes referred to as its "look-and-feel."
The GUI familiar to most of us today in either the Mac or the Windows operating systems and their applications originated at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Laboratory in the late 1970s. Apple used it in their first Macintosh computers. Later, Microsoft used many of the same ideas in their first version of the Windows operating system for IBM-compatible PCs.
When creating an application, many object-oriented tools exist that facilitate writing a graphical user interface. Each GUI element is defined as a class widget from which you can create object instances for your application. You can code or modify prepackaged methods that an object will use to respond to user stimuli.
Briefly describe the following:
a) Application
b) Machine code
c) High level language
d) Java
a) Application is a program that the users run in the computer’s Operating system.
b) A machine code is the representation of a computer program that is actually
read and interpreted by the computer. A program in machine
code consists of a sequence of machine instructions (possibly
interspersed with data). Instructions are binary strings
which may be either all the same size or of different sizes,
in which case the size of the instruction is determined from
the first word or byte . The collection of all possible instructions
for a particular computer is known as its "instruction set".
c) A programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less independent of a particular type of computer. Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer to human languages and further from machine languages. In contrast, assembly languages are considered low-level because they are very close to machine languages.
The main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they are easier to read, write, and maintain. Ultimately, programs written in a high-level language must be translated into machine language by a compiler or interpreter.
The first high-level programming languages were designed in the 1950s. Now there are dozens of different languages, including Ada, Algol, BASIC, COBOL, C, C++, FORTRAN, LISP, Pascal, and Prolog.
d)Java is a general purpose programming language with a number of features that make the language well suited for use on the World Wide Web. Small Java applications are called Java applets and can be downloaded from a Web server and run on your computer by a Java-compatible Web browser, such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer.
Outline the main differences between Mac and PC platforms:
As for performance Mac platforms are preferred because its ease of use. Nonetheless, Apple just kicked its speed ambitions up a notch with its new PowerMac G5 line, which uses the 64-bit IBM PowerPC 970 processor. These machines, aimed at professionals like graphic designers, demonstrate Apple's determination to participate in the performance race.
Macintosh platforms are designed as all-in-one solutions where all the hardware is assembled by the manufacturer, as opposed to PCs' open architecture where the system builder has a choice of components. Macintosh uses Power PC CPUs while PCs' common CPUs are Intel and AMD. Macs are based on 128 bits internal architechture as opposed to PCs with 32 and 64 bits.
Mac’s tech support is more reliable than PC’s according to the computer polls in almost every Computer magazine.
Pc’s tend to be lower on price but with the updating of its hardware components and its open architecture a Mac is a better deal since it’s a computer that needs less upgrading to function at optimum performance.
Sorry if i was late im way behind over here. ill catch up (y)  |
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Sat Apr 10, 2004 2:25 am |
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